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По умолчанию Practical railway engineering. Station Layout

Practical railway engineering. Station Layout


Clifford F Bonnett

2.1 The Customer and the Design Process

Stations on railway systems vary enormously in regard to their complexity, suitability and effectiveness but all, in one way or another, will have a direct bearing on the general well being of the final customer, the passenger.

Even a simple country halt with a single island platform can affect the comfort of the passenger if, for instance, trains are infrequent and there is no adequate shelter in bad weather, lighting is poor or the surface is inadequately maintained. On more complex stations where passengers change trains or interchange to other lines or modes of transport, poor design or maintenance of the interchange facilities can also have an adverse effect.

Similarly, such shortcomings can make operation of the railway, particularly during emergencies, very difficult and sometimes unsafe.

The investigations that followed the tragic fire at Kings Cross Underground station in London revealed that there often can be inadequacies in the layout of the infrastructure which, coupled with lack of procedures and systems, may well prevent safe management of major incidents. In the UK the Railway Inspectorate, the Health and Safety Executive and the Fire Brigades play a significant role in producing and enforcing safety requirements which impact on the design of stations. No new railway infrastructure should be commissioned until all hazards and safety issues have been properly addressed.

Ideally, the customer’s requirements should be set down in a brief prepared by the railway operator or controlling authority. These requirements will need to be interpreted into operational guidelines which should form the basis of detailed designs. In practice, because the designer is likely to be closer to technological progress and changes in the regulatory framework, the final design will emerge only after the operator has been given the feasible options and opportunities available.

The operator, as the representative of the customer, will then assess the operational and business implications of each valid option before a final choice is made. It is a common feature of project development that the desire of the customer to ensure maximum value for money conflicts with the engineer’s instinct to minimise building costs and to get to the construction stage as soon as possible.

2.2 The Need for Standards

On any railway system there is a need to establish uniform standards for the design of stations. This applies to any system but is particularly relevant where new lines or stations are being constructed on existing systems.

There is little point in providing new stations with much higher standards than on the remainder of the railway unless there is some chance of adopting these standards in the long term on existing stations.

Perhaps a good example of this is the choice of width of platform. In the UK certain absolute minimum platform widths are specified by regulatory authorities but there may be good reasons for making platforms wider at selected locations. Such reasons would include places where overcrowding is more likely, where lack of crowd control is potentially more serious or where certain trains terminate, reverse or diverge. Clearly giving more space for these considerations needs to be investigated at all locations together with the effect that introducing a new line, service or interchange may have on other stations. In such a case money may well be best spent in a number of locations instead of all at one new location or project.

The preparation of station standards at an early stage is time well spent. A good starting point is to consult the Railway Construction and Operation Requirements issued in the UK by HMSO or any other local requirements in other countries. Additionally standards adopted by similar types of railways in the same country, city or conurbation should be taken into consideration. A useful device to ensure that better standards are always kept in mind and adopted when opportunity arises is to specify ‘absolute minimum’ standards as well as ‘desirable’ standards.


Fig. 2.1. Typical country station (photo by Paul Walker).


2.3 The Objectives in Station Planning

In planning any station the following objectives need to be kept very much in mind:

• Attractiveness in appearance.

• Free movement of passengers.

• Safe evacuation in emergency.

• Access for the disabled.

• Access for emergency services.

• Safe accumulation and dispersal of crowds.

• Reliable operation of train service.

• Resilience to failure.

• Cost-effective investment.

Clearly these objectives cannot be achieved by provision of adequate space alone. A successful station is the product of well designed infrastructure, information and signing systems appropriate for the purpose, and a clear well promulgated management philosophy. A successful railway system will only result from a clear understanding of the interaction between the train service and the stations it serves, both in normal and abnormal operating conditions.

Station congestion may not always be remedied simply by the provision of more space. In many cases the solution may often lie in running a different pattern of train service, different signing of passenger routes or the application of changed management methods.

2.4 The Concept of Speed and Flow

The most important concept underlying capacity planning of stations is the relationship between the speed and flow of pedestrians. A great deal of investigation in this area has been carried out by J J Fruin and published in his book ‘Pedestrian Planning and Design’ (1971) to which reference should be made for more detailed information.

In his work Fruin set down his observations of pedestrian walking speeds and flow rates for the full range from maximum, free flow, speed in unimpeded, uncongested conditions to totally congested conditions where movement is so impeded that speeds are reduced to a shuffle and flow to a trickle. It is interesting to note that peak flow takes place where walking speeds have reduced to about 50% of those achievable under unimpeded conditions.

For each of the elements of level walkway, staircase and queuing area, Fruin went on to categorise successive bands of density across the full range as ‘Levels of Service’ (LOS). LOS ‘A’ represented low density and LOS ‘F’ represented extremely high density. Typically LOS ‘C’ or LOS ‘D’ is considered appropriate for railway stations.

Other observations were taken before Fruin and since and all seem to roundly agree with his conclusions. Fruin’s terminology and data can therefore be accepted for the planning of most railway stations.

It is necessary therefore to estimate the likely throughput of passengers to various parts of stations and from that to decide sizes and areas on the information given herein and elsewhere.

2.5 The Consideration of Time

Time considerations underlie many aspects of efficient operation of a station and benefits to the passenger and operator alike will arise from the following:

• The layout of the station should promote the free-flow of passengers into and within the station complex. The provision of adequate space will maximise walking speeds and minimise congestion.

• Areas where passengers may stop or hesitate through uncertainty or specific need (e.g. to buy a ticket) must be identified and space provided so that other passengers are not unduly hindered.

• In the event of service disruption, escalator failure or other unusual event, passengers must be able to accumulate safely until operational action can take effect.

• Future traffic growth can be accommodated.

• Emergencies can be controlled.

• Station signing is adequate.

• Infrastructure must be ‘right first time’.

2.6 Planning for Normal Operation

The degree to which the business is prepared to invest in providing space purely for the added comfort of passengers must be decided by each railway system based on its own market position and objectives.

The starting point for any station planning is the demand forecast. This must be accompanied by a detailed knowledge of the likely train frequency from each platform and the time staff would need to take action when problems arise. Given working assumptions, it is then possible to determine how many people are likely to have accumulated within a particular area before control measures can be instituted.

The operator must determine his own relative values for key variables which combine to determine the minimum size and capacity for any element of a station.

These will include:

• time needed to become aware of a problem.

• staff reaction and decision time.

• action implementation time.

• accumulation rate for passengers.

• maximum density for safety.

The frequency and destination pattern of the train service is also a key factor in the sizing of station infrastructure. Assuming, for instance, that the total staff reaction time is effectively five minutes and that the normal peak service is at five minute intervals, capacity at the platform must allow for at least twice the normal numbers expected in the peak.

2.7 The Demand Matrix

For complex railway stations it is essential to understand where everybody is coming from and going to, not just within the station but in general terms outside the station. A typical example of such a matrix for Victoria Underground Station during an evening peak hour is as shown below:


Fig. 2.3. Typical sub-surface booking hall.


Fig. 2.4. Congestion at the foot of an ascending escalator.

Where the choice of route or exits and entrances exist it is important to determine the proportion of pedestrians likely to use each and allocate capacity in proportion accordingly.

The points in a station particularly vulnerable to a rapid increase in congestion are the platforms, foot of stairs and escalators and ticket halls. If a service is scheduled to run at two minute intervals in the peak, a sensible guideline would be to assume that after five minutes delay of any train some staff intervention would be triggered to control overcrowding. This translates into a design target of passenger density somewhere between one quarter and one sixth of that at which complete congestion occurs. In practice it has been established that movement through restricted spaces ceases once the density gets to between four and five passengers per square metre. When passageways are almost empty, average walking speed can be as high as 80 metres per minute but even medium ‘bunching-up’ to a density of about two people per square metre dramatically more than halves the walking speed. In tabular form, the flow of pedestrians through walkways during differing degrees of crowding, can be as shown in Fig. 2.5.

It will be seen from the above table that overcrowding of any passageway beyond about two passengers per square metre of available space will have the effect of progressively reducing the throughput. The situation is worsened considerably if pedestrians are walking in two directions or have conflicting moves at junctions with other passageways.

It would be possible to design passageways on the basis of maximum crowding during peak periods of two passengers per square metre, theoretically giving maximum throughput for minimum widths. This however would be completely unacceptable as no incidents or train delays could occur without major crowding and disruption. At the other extreme, excessively wide passageways, which are never filled to capacity, cannot be justified.


Fig. 2.5. Pedestrian flows during crowding.

What then is the sensible approach? Each railway system needs to select a design density for peak periods, which will reasonably allow for minor incidents, delays and up to say three cancellations. It is essential in capacity planning of stations to offer sufficient resilience to train service perturbations and surges in demand that staff intervention by station control becomes the exception rather than the rule. This of course still calls for staff vigilance supported by modern surveillance and information techniques.

If a design figure for normal operational peak crowding of 1.25 pedestrians per square metre is adopted, sufficient resilience should be ‘built-in’. As indicated by Fig. 2.5 this will mean that average walking speeds in the peak will be about 60 m per min. (2 mph) and for normal operation only about three quarters of the absolute flow capacity will be used. In the recommendations for size in the paragraphs that follow in this chapter the figure given above has been used in arriving at suggested dimensions.

2.8 Capacity Requirements

It is recommended that the following limits should be applied to station areas for demand levels under normal peak conditions:

Platforms, ticket halls and concourses — 0.8sqm per person Passageways

• one way — 50 persons per minute/m width

• two way — 40 persons per minute/m width

Fixed Stairways

• one way — 35 persons per minute/m width

• two way — 28 persons per minute/m width

To allow for ‘peaks within a peak’ it is wise to use the calculated peak fifteen-minute flow figure, which can be derived from the one-hour figure by multiplying by 0.3.

Similarly the peak five-minute flow figure can be derived by multiplying the fifteen-minute figure by 0.4. This five-minute figure should be used when testing the layout ‘tight spots’ to ensure that dangerous situations do not occur during the short lived period when crowding exceeds desirable levels at a restricted localised point.

The capacity of entrances and exits to street level should follow the guidelines above. From subsurface ticket halls/concourse areas there should be at least two exits to the street each of which must be able to take the full peak level demand albeit under crowded conditions.

Locations which are fed by exits from stations need to be examined to ensure that no bottle-necks exist immediately outside station buildings. This is particularly important where stations exit into Local Authority subways, shopping malls or where sporting events are likely to produce ‘tidal wave’ crowding.

2.9 Ticket Halls

The location and size of station entrances will be determined by establishing the principal directions in which passengers may wish to leave or approach the station. In addition to determining passenger flows into and through the ticket hall it is necessary to identify all activities which need to take place there. These will vary in scope and degree between main line railways, metros and light rail.

Additionally many large main line stations will have a mix of daily local commuters, long haul travellers and inter-modal transfer passengers. There will also be special cases such as at Waterloo where the requirements of continental travellers need to be specifically met.

Similarly any station which serves an international airport or exhibition centre will also have special passenger requirements, particularly with baggage handling/storage. Certain emergency services may also require space for accommodation of specialised safety equipment.

All ticket halls are likely to require space and facilities for the following as a minimum:

• Ticket selling and collection.

• Meeting, greeting and waiting.

• Travel information.

• Retail and vending.

• Station management.

• Secure access to staff accommodation and control rooms.

Some may also require provision of:

• Toilets.

• Public Telephones.

• Baggage trolleys/handling and storage.

• Police accommodation.

In the sizing of a ticket hall the following basic information needs to be established:

• the expected numbers involved in each activity.

• their likely pattern of movement.

• the duration of the activity.

• the timing of activities relative to each other.

• identification of peak demands.

From this information the basic size and layout of the ticket office and other facilities can be planned at the preliminary stage and must then be worked up to a final layout.


It is essential that space is provided for each activity in such a way that simultaneous activities do not hinder each other. For example, a poor feature of many existing stations is that queues of passengers buying tickets extend across ticket barriers thus hindering access for ticket holders entering and leaving the station. This is not only a source of delay and irritation to passengers but can also be potentially dangerous to passengers getting off crowded escalators on the approach to barriers.

Recent experience has shown that the critical dimensions for ticket offices are determined by the number of ticket gates required for the peak flow coupled with the number of ticket selling points required along the other axis.

If automatic ticket barriers are used then it is essential that an adequate number of gates is provided to cater for the expected passenger levels, both in and out. Automatic ticket checking gates should be specified to allow a throughput of at least 25 people per minute and it is considered prudent to allow for 10% of gates to be out of service. The calculation should be based on the five-minute flows plus 20 passengers.

In many locations there is a ‘tidal flow’ tendency, particularly at outer area suburban stations, between morning and evening peaks. In such places at least half of the gates should be reversible to allow for this. The desirable overhead clearance in all ticket halls should not be less than 3 metres under suspended ceilings. Where this is structurally impossible at all points a reduction in clear height to an absolute minimum of 2.4 metres may be acceptable.

2.10 Access and Interchange

By applying the various pedestrian planning parameters to the relevant demand figures it is then possible to determine sizes of passageways, staircases and escalators. These must be supplemented, however, by extra space provision which recognises the inefficiencies in its usage in practice. These include the following:

• Edge Effects

Passengers have a tendency not to make use of the full width available. People tend to keep a distance of at least 0.5 metres from the side wall. Thus passageway widths derived from flows need to have addition for edge effects, as do platforms.

• Hesitation and Decision Points

It is also observed that passengers will often stop or hesitate when making a transition between one station element and the next while they decide what to do next. This hesitation may hinder other passengers behind them.

An additional 0.3 metres width should be provided in passageways where centre handrails are required to divide the flows. In no case should any passageway be narrower than 2.0 metres.

Where long distances have to be walked consideration should be given to the provision of travelators or moving walkway. The preferred maximum gradient for a travelator for passengers is 1 in 20 but in very tight circumstances this may be increased to 1 in 12 as an absolute maximum. Run-offs of not less than 6 metres are necessary at either end of travelators.

An important feature is that passageways should be of constant capacity along their full length with good lines of sight avoiding as far as possible recesses and indentations which could form litter traps and possible hiding places.

It is very desirable that the ceiling height in passageways should be as high as practicable but generally not less than 3 metres. Where this is not achievable a reduction to an absolute minimum of 2.4 metres may be permissible.

2.11 Stairs, Escalators and Lifts

In considering changes in level that have to be negotiated by passengers, the following guidelines should be adopted for new construction:

Less than 0.5 metres — Surface may be ramped.

(preferred max. 1 in 20, absolute max. 1 in 12.) 0.5m to 3.0 metres — Fixed staircase (min. 3 risers).

3.0 m to 5.0 metres — Normally fixed staircase but escalator if cost can be justified.

Over 5.0 metres — Normally escalator but outer suburban stations

may have fixed stairs up to height of 6 m with two

half landings.

Staircase dimensions must comply with local Building Regulations and in the UK with the Department of Transport Railway Construction and Operation Requirements.

Escalators must comply with British Standard BS 5656 and particular attention must be given to provision of access to all equipment/machine rooms during traffic hours without obstructing passengers. Careful consideration needs to be given to safety requirements in emergencies. Passenger flow parameters for vertical circulation should be taken as follows:

• 100 people per minute for escalators one metre wide

• 35 people per minute for one-way stairs per metre width (clear)

• 28 people per minute for two-way stairs per metre width (clear)

The effective width of staircases is to be measured clear between handrails.

Stairs and escalators should generally be of open design with overhead clearances of at least three metres measured vertically from the pitch line of the steps to the soffit. In circular section shafts this dimension is to be measured from the point on the steps nearest to the shaft wall.

Any intermediate landing between flights of escalators must be sufficiently large to accumulate passengers safely while station staff effect appropriate action should an escalator break down.

2.12 Platforms

Station platforms are an important part of the infrastructure of any railway system and proper design can give great assistance to good operation. Critical to achievement of a tight timetable is adherence to the times assumed for boarding and alighting (dwell time). Failure to provide sufficient space on a platform may well mean the passengers waiting to board a train will not be able to stand aside for those getting off.

On a platform from which trains go to more than one destination care must be taken to allow conditions in which passengers will not wish to take the first train to arrive. In these circumstances, even if the train destination pattern proportionately matches that of the passengers, the effect will be to drive up the average wait for each passenger and thereby increase the average crowding levels.

It is also important to vary the location of entrances and exits to platforms relative to the train, along the line of the route. This will have the effect of encouraging a more uniform distribution of passengers both on trains and station platforms, thus keeping dwell times to a minimum. Platforms should be kept as straight as possible so that staff are able to see the full length in crowded conditions. Curves on platforms also have the effect of increasing the gap between the platform and the train which can bring attendant hazards. Ideally curves at platforms should not be less than 1000 metres radius. The stepping distance between the platform and the train should not exceed 150 mm laterally.

The width of platforms must be carefully considered for each system, taking into account the likely heaviest loading of trains, their frequency, the number of passengers likely to be alighting and the number of exit points along the length of the platform. The absolute minimum width of any platform should be limited to not less than two metres. This should only be accepted at minor stations and at platform ends or for very limited lengths away from passenger exits or entrances.

The desirable minimum width of platforms for fairly busy stations is three metres for side platforms and six metres for island platforms with tracks on both sides.

Headroom on platforms should be not less than three metres wherever possible.

2.13 Footbridges and Subways

At surface and elevated stations, footbridges or subways will need to be provided to and from platforms. The number, location and sizes of these will depend largely upon requirements for interchange as well for exit and entry to and from the railway system. The limiting dimensions of these should be as those already indicated for passageways and stairs. The location of both footbridges and subways needs to be very carefully considered if undue passenger congestion and delay in interchange or exit is to be avoided. Where a common subway or footbridge is used both for entry/exit and for movement from one platform to another, greater widths need to be provided to avoid congestion and delay due to conflicting passenger movements. Where possible at terminal or important interchange stations, separate staircases or subways should be provided for interchange between platforms and for entry or exit. It is also most important in such cases to consider carefully how adequate emergency exit can be provided following an incident or when crush conditions develop. The original cost of a subway is usually more than the cost of an equivalent footbridge and maintenance of drainage and prevention of flooding on surface stations should make a footbridge the first option to be considered.

At the reconstruction stage it is also usually considerably cheaper and easier to rebuild a footbridge over the tracks than a subway which supports the tracks.

Where railways have overhead electrification, special consideration must be given at all footbridges and gantries to ensure that both passengers and workers are protected from the live wires and that adequate parapets are provided at all necessary locations.

Except possibly for some little used rural stations, it is best to provide protection against the weather for all staircases and footbridges to avoid possibility of accidents.

2.14 Station Canopies

The extent to which platforms require to be covered needs to be carefully considered for each station. Clearly it is desirable that some protection from the elements should be provided for waiting passengers but the cost of this provision can be high, including the ongoing maintenance liability.

Estimation should be made of the maximum number of waiting passengers likely to be on a platform during peak periods. If it is not considered necessary for the canopy to go the full length of the platform, the lengths nearest to access points and station buildings should be covered.

At suburban stations where the main flow of passengers board and alight at different platforms, some economy may be effected by reducing the length of the canopy on the main arrival platform as passengers will generally disperse quickly and not wait. Some light rail systems have experienced considerable complaint due to the lack of adequate protection for waiting passengers, even where services are very frequent. This indicates that it is wise to provide some covered areas on all platforms for both safety and passenger comfort reasons.

Additionally, it has been the author’s experience that covering of escalators from the effects of weather is also essential to ensure maximum safety to the users as well as keeping maintenance to a practical minimum.

Care needs to be taken when designing canopies over platforms, staircases and footbridges to ensure that adequate access is available to carry out regular inspection and maintenance of gutters and down-pipes without the need for possessions of the railway.

2.15 Access for Disabled and Mobility Impaired Passengers

In recent years railway operators have started to consider specific provisions for disabled passengers, particularly those in wheelchairs. Consideration has also covered those who are not disabled but are mobility impaired because of age or by small children or heavy or bulky luggage etc. In several countries there are now legal requirements that this also must be addressed. Similarly there are infrequent occasions when normally able passengers may be temporarily unable to climb stairs and will require to use lifts or some other form of mobility assistance. Much help can often be afforded by quite simple low cost measures. Simple changes to door furniture from knob to lever, for instance, can also help where passengers may have problems opening doors to rooms and cubicles.

In the past it was often thought impractical for wheelchairs or pushchairs to be used on railway systems, particularly where there are changes in level and crowded conditions. Many railway authorities banned them from their systems because of the perceived hazard they represented both to themselves and to other users.

In line with changing attitudes to disabled people, supported by European Directives aiming to promote mobility of all, railway authorities are increasingly reconsidering the position on this aspect. Several new Metros and Light Rail systems have been designed to specifically accommodate disabled people. Where new lines are added to existing systems there is considerable difficulty in ensuring that access is properly limited to areas of the system where it is safe for disabled passengers to go.


Fig. 2.8. Lift for the disabled, Docklands Light Railway.

As well as concern for passengers who are disabled there is now an increasing awareness that ‘mobility impaired’ passengers also have a strong need to be considered.

This group, which at some periods and locations is quite a significant proportion, includes the partially sighted, the elderly, mothers with small children and laden shoppers or tourists.

This change in attitude means that new station design must not preclude use by disabled passengers either at the present if it is safe for them to use the rest of the system or in the future when it is so. Many small improvements can be made in detailed design which will assist those who have hearing and sight difficulties or who find walking long distances difficult.

2.16 The ‘Downgraded’ Station

Even on the best operated of railways there will be times, both planned and unplanned, when parts of a station become blocked or unusable. The planner and railway engineers need to think through in advance how a given station layout will function in such an event.

Downgrading of the general efficiency of a station as a whole could be triggered by many things. This would certainly include for instance:

• Escalator short term failure.

• Escalator long term replacement.

• Stair closure (e.g. tread or handrail failure).

• Automatic ticket barrier failure.

• Train service disruption.

• Partial blockage of vital connecting passageway (e.g. caused by illness of passenger).

Where it is found that this partial downgrading of certain station facilities could cause major disruption, the planner should seek to improve the situation. Considerable skill is called for in this process to ensure that the best overall value for money is obtained. In the final analysis, there will always need to be a compromise between the solution which is the most economic for normal operating conditions and that which may not be ideal but does give more flexibility when things go wrong.

2.17 Planning for Hazards

In the design of any railway station consideration must always be given to major hazards that might occur within the station environment.

With all railways, but in particular for those which are beneath the surface, fire is the hazard which most influences station design. Fire presents a time-critical event in which passengers must be evacuated before the environment becomes incapable of sustaining life.

It is essential that all evacuation routes are well signed and are adequately protected where necessary by powerful ventilation systems, smoke/fire doors and roller shutters. It is also necessary to fully consider both the case of a train on fire and other stationary equipment such as escalators. In such an event alternative escape routes must also be properly signed.

In dealing with a major life threatening emergency, such as a train on fire in a station, the target should be to be able to clear passengers from the immediate area of the train (the platform) in four minutes and from the station within six minutes. In a large or complex station this last requirement would apply to another fire separated route or area rather than the station as a whole.

In the planning stage it is essential to discuss with the local emergency services how their equipment and personnel will be given access to and from a major incident.

2.18 Staff Accommodation

At the earliest stage station designers will need to establish the accommodation, storage and office requirements of all the staff who will be involved in operating, engineering and maintaining the railway. This probably will include provision for those involved in the following functions as a minimum:

• Operation and train control.

• Signal engineering and communications.

• Permanent way maintenance and renewal.

• Premises and structures maintenance.

• Mechanical/electrical/escalator/ventilation maintenance.

• Power supply and lighting.

• Cleaning and advertising etc.

Some thought also needs to be given to accommodation which may be needed for emergency services in the event of a major incident.

2.19 Designing for Maintenance

An essential part of the design of any station is the careful consideration of maintenance and longer term renewal of components. A fully successful design is one that not only achieves the obvious requirement of allowing passengers to move freely between points but maximises the net worth of the business.

This is achieved both by attracting customers, thereby increasing revenues, and by minimising disruption and the lifetime costs. A common failing of many stations on existing railway systems is that they now consume large resources on maintenance which can only be carried out at night or by closing the facilities to passengers.

In particular each engineering department involved needs to be consulted relating to their proposed pattern of works which will be required to keep the railway fully operational. These works will generally fall into three general headings:

• Minor ‘house-keeping’ maintenance

This will be normally carried out daily, nightly or weekly.

• Seasonal maintenance items

Work that will be programmed, like light bulb changing or track tamping, on a yearly or six monthly basis.

• Long term renewal

Replacement of life-expired components like light fittings, stair treads or pit blocks.

Care needs to be exercised in the original design to ensure that, wherever possible, equipment is accessible without the need for possession or night work. Additionally areas on platforms and elsewhere need to be able to be made available for storage of plant and materials for essential maintenance works.


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Создано Admin, 01.07.2013 в 19:58
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